The evolution of the English language is characterized by three phases. The first period dates from approximately 450 (the settlement of the Angles, Saxons and Jutes in England) to 1066 AD (the Norman Conquest). At this time the language made use of almost full inflexion, and is called Anglo-Saxon, or more exactly Old English. The second period dates from the Norman Conquest to probably c.1400 (though some books differ on when this period ends) and is called Middle English. During this time the majority of the inflections disappeared, and many Norman/Norseman and French words joined the language because of the profound influence of the Anglo-Norman ruling class. The third period dates from about 1400 to today (2007), and is known as Modern English, though until recently it was called New English. During the Modern English period, thousands of words have been derived by scholars from the Classical languages.
The impact of dictionaries in the definition of obsolescent or archaic forms has caused the standardization of spelling, hence many variant forms have fallen into disuse.
It should be noted that often poets and writers of prose with a very strong feel for the language may on occasion deliberately choose to use archaisms to emphasize a certain point or to create a mood.
| Original word | Origin | Meaning | Example | Comments |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| an | unknown | historical form of if | used in Shakespearian/vulgar language | |
| art | form of the verb 'to be', from Old English eart. | present second-person singular form of the verb be. "Are". | …Who may stand in thy sight when once thou art angry? (Psalm 76:7) | used in Biblical/Shakespearian/poetical language |
| astonied | past participle of 'astony' from Middle English astonien < Old French estoner < Vulgar Latin *extonare = 'to thunder' | to stun, amaze, or astonish; astound or bewilder | …and I sat astonied until the evening sacrifice. (Ezra 9:4) | used in Biblical/Shakespearian/poetical language |
| betwixt | from Old English betweohs or dative betweoxum (between) | between | …He shall lie all night betwixt my breasts.(Song of Solomon 1:13) | used in Biblical/Shakespearian/poetical language, also used in some Southern and Appalachian dialects of the United States during the 19th and 20th centuries. |
| bilbo | From Bilbao, Spain, the haven exporting the ironworks of Biscay. | an obscure and seldom used word for a short sword. | Ha, thou mountain-foreigner! Sir John and Master mine, I combat challenge of this latten bilbo. Word of denial in thy labras here! Word of denial: froth and scum, thou liest! (William Shakespeare, The Merry Wives of Windsor (Act1, Scene 1) | Bilbo is one of the Basque words for Bilbao, formerly called Bilboa in English. |
| bobbish | from bob move up and down, dance, rebound + -ish | brisk, well | Used in 1860s | |
| bouncable | unknown | a swaggering boaster | Used in 1860s | |
| Bridewell | from the London prison of that name | a prison | Used in 1860s (and in common current use in Nottingham where the police station attached to the Magistrates' Court is called The Bridewell) | |
| caddish | from the noun cad | wicked | the noun 'cad' is dying out | |
| cag-mag | unknown | decaying meat | Used in 1860s | |
| chalk scores | unknown | a reference to accounts of debt, recorded with chalk marks | Used in 1860s | |
| coddleshell | unknown | codicil; a modification to one's legal will | Used in 1860s | |
| coiner | Possibly related to the widespread minting of counterfeit coins in the 18th cent. | a counterfeiter | Enjoy your perch up there, Mister Newton, because Jack the Coiner has come back to London-town, and he aims to knock you down; the game has begun and may the best man win! (Neal Stephenson, The Confusion) | Used in 1860s |
| connexion | From Latin "Connexion" | original spelling of connection | Imagination could conceive almost anything in connexion with this place. (At the Mountains of Madness, by H.P. Lovecraft) | Used in the 19th century |
| costermonger | coster comes from Costard, a type of cooking apple, monger means trader or seller | a greengrocer, seller of fruit and vegetables | fishmonger, ironmonger and warmonger are among the surviving words ending in -monger | |
| cove | unknown | a fellow or chap | It's what a cove knows that counts, ain't it, Sybil? (The Difference Engine, by Bruce Sterling and William Gibson) | Used in 1860s |
| to craze | Old Norse, through Old French | to shatter | Used in 14th Century. A remnant survives in the phrase "cracked and crazed", also in ceramics where a glaze that has fine lines like cracks is called a craze. A modern usage would be in "crazed paving". | |
| dost | from do | present second-person singular form of the verb do | I cry unto thee, and thou dost not hear me... (Job 30:20) | used in Biblical, Shakespearian and poetical language. |
| doth | from do | present third-person singular form of the verb do | The north wind driveth away rain: so doth an angry countenance a backbiting tongue. (Proverbs 25:23) | used in Biblical, Shakespearian and poetical language. |
| drab | unknown | a prostitute | Finger of birth-strangled babe, ditch-delivered by a drab. (Shakespeare's Macbeth) | |
| dream | A part of the root stock of the OE vocabulary. | joy | Under the influence of Old Norse speakers in England, the word dream changed its meaning from ``joy, festivity, noisy merriment" to ``a sleeping vision". Died out before the 13th century. | |
| ducats | A bullion coin (not legal tender) used in international trade | money | Austrian Ducats were displaced by Gold Sovereigns throughout the British Empire. The term is used today only to refer to the coin in numismatic circles, as Ducats are still produced by the Austrian mint. Ducatus' is a Neo-Latin term for "duchy". | |
| eek, eke | Old English "éac". Compare Dutch "ook", German "auch", both meaning "also" | also | When Zephyrus eke with his swoote breath Inspired hath in every holt and heath (Chaucer's Canterbury Tales) ; | Used mostly in Middle English, but also later on until the 1600s. Is the origin for the word "nickname" (in Middle English "ekename"). |
| -est | from Old English "-est". Compare with German "-st". | suffix used to form the present second-person singular of regular verbs | When thou goest, thy steps shall not be straitened; and when thou runnest, thou shalt not stumble (Proverbs 4:12) | used in Biblical, Shakespearian and poetical language. |
| -eth | from Old English "-eð". Compare with Dutch and German "-t". | suffix used to form the present third-person singular of regular verbs | He maketh me to lie down in green pastures: he leadeth me beside the still waters. (Psalm 23:2) | used in Biblical, Shakespearian and poetical language. |
| fire a rick | unknown | to burn a stack of hay (rick), as a form of protest | Used in 1860s | |
| Forsooth! | Really! | Used in Shakespearian English | ||
| fluey | From the flue of a chimney, normally coated with soot from log or coal fires | dusty | Used in 1860s | |
| Grinder | unknown | a tutor who prepares students for examinations | Used in 1860s | |
| hast | from have, compare with German "hast". | present second-person singular form of the verb have | Thou hast proved mine heart; thou hast visited me in the night; thou hast tried me, and shalt find nothing... (Psalm 17:3) | Compare to hast in German. Used in Biblical, Shakespearian and poetical language. |
| hath | from have, compare with German "hat". | present third-person singular form of the verb have | This is the day which the Lord hath made; we will rejoice and be glad in it. (Psalm 118:24) | used in Biblical/Shakespearian/poetical language |
| heavy | unknown, likely an "emotional onomatopoeia " used to describe the feeling of depression | depressed | used in the vulgar language | |
| hither | (to) here | English accusative case form | ||
| ivory tablets | unknown | paper for notetaking | Used in 1860s | |
| kine | Middle English kyen, a plural of the Old English cy, plural of cu, meaning cow | cattle | Used until late 1800s; still in Biblical use; Spenser used the form kyne | |
| marry | unknown | by the Virgin Mary, a mild oath meaning "indeed" | used in Shakespearian/vulgar language | |
| methinks | unknown | literally, "it seems to me" | used in the vulgar language | |
| mote | old present tense of "must" from Old English motan | must | NB. It may be argued that it is not technically defunct since the word is still used in freemasonry and wicca as part of certain rituals. | |
| nay | unknown, see article | no | used in most settings | |
| nought | unknown | nothing | used in the vulgar language, compare to German nichts | |
| over the broomstick | unknown | to be married in a folk ceremony and not recognized by the law. Still commonly used as part of the ceremony in modern Pagan weddings by Wiccans, Witches and other alternative spiritualities. | "Then if somebody been wantin' to marry they step over the broom and it be nounced they married" (Slave Narratives Betty Curlett of Hazen, Arkansas). | Used in 1860s, "over the brush" still used in British English, c.f. jumping the broomstick. |
| quantum | Latin for "as much", "how much" | money to pay a bill | Used in 1860s. Still used in this sense in some legal terminology. | |
| rantipole | unknown | to behave in a romping or rude manner | Used in 1860s | |
| read with | unknown | to tutor | Used in 1860s, still used in Caribbean English | |
| shake-down | unknown | a bed | Used in 1860s, also a modern slang term dealing with law enforcement, and, as an adjective indicating an initial cruise for a Navy ship | |
| shalt | from shall | used to form the future tense of verbs | Thou shalt break them with a rod of iron; thou shalt dash them in pieces like a potter's vessel. (Psalm 2:9) | used in Biblical, Shakespearian and poetical language |
| shew | original strong present tense (shew, show, shown) from Old English sceawian; replaced by related weak verb show meaning "to make a show of" | show | 'To shew Louisa, how alike in their creeds, her father and Harthouse are?' - (Dickens' notes on Hard Times). | Used in the 19th century |
| smote | past tense of 'smite' (smite, smote, smitten) from Old English smitan = 'to strike' | struck hard, beat, inflicted a blow | And he smote them hip and thigh with a great slaughter... (Judges 15:8) | used in Biblical, Shakespearian and poetical language. |
| soft | unknown | an exclamation meaning "wait a minute!" | used in Shakespearian/vulgar language | |
| stand high | unknown | to have a good reputation | Used in 1860s | |
| thee, thou, thy/thine | from Old English þú | old 2nd person singular pronoun | Thou art my God, and I will praise thee: thou art my God, I will exalt thee. (Psalm 118:28) | "Thee" is used when it is the grammatical object, "thou" when it is the subject. "Thy" and "thine" are both genitives, but "thine" is only used in front of an initial vowel or h or as the last word of a sentence. Still used in Biblical/Shakespearian/poetical language. Also still used in northern dialects of British English e.g. Yorkshire. |
| thither | (to) there | English accusative case form of indicative pronoun there | ||
| thole | from Old English þolian | to bear; put up with; suffer | A man with a good crop can thole some thistles (Scots Proverb) | Still used in northern and Scottish dialects of British English e.g. Yorkshire. |
| unto | to, onto, upon | And the LORD God called unto Adam, and said unto him, Where art thou? (Genesis 3:9) | Mainly used in Early Modern English. | |
| wast, wert | from be | past-tense second person singular of be, used with thou | If thou wert pure and upright; surely now he would awake for thee, and make the habitation of thy righteousness prosperous. (Job 8:6) | The original form was "were", which underwent analogical reformation in Early Modern English. Shakespeare used the form "wert," while the King James Bible used "wast" for the indicative, and "wert" for the subjunctive. |
| whence | from where | from what place | Whence came this traveler? | Used in poetry |
| wherefore | why | Wherefore do the wicked live, become old, yea, are mighty in power? (Job 21:7) | It is a common misconception that "wherefore" means "where". In Romeo and Juliet, the context of "Wherefore art thou, Romeo?" is not "Where are you, Romeo", but rather "Why is your name Romeo?" | |
| whitesmith | from blacksmith, an iron worker | a tinsmith | Used in 1860s | |
| whither | contraction of where hither | to where (destination) | whence camest thou? and whither wilt thou go? (Genesis 16:8) | Compare to wohin in German. used in Biblical, Shakespearian and poetical language. |
| whitlow | unknown | a sore or swelling in a finger or thumb | Used in 1860s, still used in British English | |
| wilt | from will | used to form the future tense of verbs | whence camest thou? and whither wilt thou go? (Genesis 16:8) | used in Biblical, Shakespearian and poetical language. |
| withal | unknown | form of(which form?) with | used in Shakespearian and vulgar language. | |
| wittles | from "victuals" | food | You bring me, to-morrow morning early, that file and them wittles. (Great Expectations, Charles Dickens) | Used in 1860s, vittles still used in British and American English |
| yea (pronounced yey/yae) | unknown, possibly similar to aye | yes | Used in the vulgar language. Not to be mistaken for the similarly-spelt term yeah, which has a different pronounciation. | |
| zounds | corrupted form of "God's wounds" | expletive | Still used occasionally in British English, but its taboo has disappeared. It was originally a very offensive exclamative, often considered immensely blasphemous. Used often in Shakespearian literature, alongside 'sblood (which has a similar meaning). |
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